Martin Bormann Essays (2187 words) - SS-Obersturmbannfhrer

Martin Bormann On the night of October 15, 1946, ten of the twelve major war criminals, condemned to death at the Nuremberg trials, were executed. Of the two who eluded the hangman, one was ReichMarshal Hermann Goring, who committed suicide by swallowing a lethal vial of cyanide two hours before his execution. The other man was Reichsleiter Martin Bormann, who had managed to gain an enormous amount of power within the Nazi Party. He was virtually unknown outside of the Party elite as he had worked in the shadows of Hitler. As the end of the war drew near, many of the top Nazis were fleeing. Hermann Goring had fled west, and had been captured by American soldiers, after the death of Hitler had been announced. In Hitler's political will, Goring had been expelled from the party while Martin Bormann had been named Party Minister . According to Jochen Von Lang, Gobbels and Bormann had ?held a military briefing on the night of May 2, 1945. ? Gobbels had already decided to commit suicide but Bormann despe rately wanted to survive. The last entry into his diary was ?escape attempt! ? Martin Bormann's whereabouts after this night is unknown. There are many speculations as to his fate ranging from the probable to the spectacular. Reichsleiter Bormann who, according to A. Zoller, ?exercised absolute control over the whole structure of the Reich? and yet, virtually unknown to the public, was born June 17th, 1900. He was born in Saxon to a Postal Clerk. Bormann joined an anti-Semitic organization in 1920 and by 1923 he was a member of the Freikorps. During this period, he was imprisoned for a year for murder and one year after his release Bormann joined the Nazi Party as a financial administrator. By 1933 he had worked his way to being made a Reichsleiter, a General of the SS and the Chief of Staff to Rudolf Hess. When Hess took flight to England, Bormann gladly inherited his position and became Hitler's deputy. He had many enemies in the Party and Goring explained that even Goebbels feared him and his power . Bormann saw himself to be quite a noble character and in a letter to his wife dated April 2nd, 1945 he wrote that, ?if we are destined, like the Nebeliung, to perish in King Attila's hall, then we go to de ath proudly and with our heads held high.? For all his bravado, as the time to fight arrived, Bormann made a frantic attempt to survive. At the end of the war, the allied leaders decided to prosecute top Nazis as War Criminals in Nuremberg. As Martin Bormann was missing, it was decided that he would be tried in absentia. Although the allies had testimony stating that Bormann was dead, they ignored it because if ?Bormann at this point was to be declared dead by the court, and then to surface later on, die-hard Nazis would suspect that perhaps the Furher was alive too.? In order for allied credibility to remain intact, Bormann was to be tried for Crimes against Peace, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity. Dr. Friedrich Bergold was appointed to this difficult task of defending a missing man. He considered it ?a miscarriage of justice for the Tribunal to try his client in absentia.? The International Tribunal sentenced Reichsleiter Martin Bormann to death. The night of May 1-2, 1945 is the last known whereabouts of Martin Bormann. The Reichsleiter was desperately trying to leave Berlin alive. He had tried to negotiate with the Russians for a brief cease-fire in order for him to obtain a safe passage through the enemy's lines. It had been rejected. The survivors in the Fuhrerbunker were attempting to escape the city and every twenty minutes a group left. Bormann emerged wearing an SS uniform without rank and a leather overcoat. His pocket contained a copy of Hitler's will, securing him to power. His group, that included Axmann, Kempka and Stumpfegger, arrived at the Friedrichstrasse Subway station but were held up at the Weidendammer Bridge. The Russians held the other side of the bridge and therefore made it impossible to cross without the cover of tanks. Miraculously, some German tiger tanks and a few armoured

Free Essays on Documentary Photographer

formulated by the people in the picture. However... Free Essays on Documentary Photographer Free Essays on Documentary Photographer Documentary projects The Great Depression, which began with the stock market crash of 1929 and lasted for the next decade, was a time of desperation and disorientation in America. In an effort to bring the country back on its feet, President Roosevelt initiated the Farm Security Administration (FSA) project. Photographers were hired and sent across the United States to document Americans living in poverty, and Dorothea Lange and Walker Evans were two of those photographers that were sent out. Along with their partners Paul S. Taylor and James Agee they started their projects which were approached through two different methods. Agee and Evans project Let Us Now Praise Famous Men and Lange and Taylor’s project An American exodus: A Record of Human Erosion, are two similar, though different types of work. Both projects are of the poor tenant farmers in the south and the sharecroppers living during the Great Depression during the 1930s. The first difference I noticed is the way the pictures are pres ented in the two projects. By this I mean how they are taken and how Evans and Lange chose which ones that were to be included in the books. A second difference is that Agee and Taylor had two different writing techniques and these are the biggest differences between the two books. Despite the similarities in the two texts presented by the authors and photographers, their work is presented in two various ways. Agee and Evans project was done after living with three tenant families and Evans photographs are completely separate from Agees text. There are not any captions or names and they do not tell us where the photos are taken or who the people in the pictures are. Lange and Taylor’s project on the other hand is written in a way that helps us read the photographs and it is easier to see the connections between the text and pictures. The captions underneath the photos are based on words formulated by the people in the picture. However...

Chemistry Jokes, Puns, and Riddles

Chemistry Jokes, Puns, and Riddles Chemistry terminology and jargon is ripe for puns and intellectual humor. Below is a collection of chemistry jokes, puns, riddles, and one-liners. Old Chemist One-Liner Old chemists never die, they just stop reacting. Coffee Riddle What is the chemical formula of coffee? CoFe2 Banana Riddle What is the chemical formula for a banana? BaNa2 Dead Chemists What should do you do with a dead Chemist? Barium! Dental Chemistry Riddle What do you call a tooth in a glass of water? A one molar solution. Ion Riddle What did one charged atom say to the other? Ive got my ion you. pH Chemistry Joke Why do chemists enjoy working with ammonia? Because its pretty basic stuff. Spy Chem What is the name of agent 007s Eskimo cousin? Polar Bond. Medical Elements Joke Q: Why do chemists call helium, curium, and barium the medical elements?A: Because if you cant helium or curium, you barium! Diamond Riddle What element is a girls future best friend? Carbon. Element Laughter What did the chemist say when he found two isotopes of helium? HeHe Neutral Neutron A neutron walks into a shop and says,Id like a coke.The shopkeeper serves up the coke.How much will that be? asks the neutron.The shopkeeper replies, For you? No charge. Norse Chemistry What element derives from a Norse god? Thorium. Mole Riddle Why was the mole of oxygen molecules excited when he left the singles bar? He got Avogadros number! Particle Charge Joke A proton and a neutron were walking down the street. The proton says, Stop, I dropped an electron. Help me look for it. The neutron asks, Are you sure? The proton replies, Yes, Im positive. Peroxide Joke Two chemists go into a restaurant. The first chemist says, Ill have H2. The second chemist says, Ill have an H2O too.... and he died. TV Chemistry What show do cesium and iodine love to watch together? CsI Words from Element Symbols I asked the guy next to me if he had any sodium hypobromite. He said NaBrO. Lawyer Chemistry Joke Why cant lawyers do NMR? Bar magnets have poor homogeneity. Chemistry Lab Safety What is the most important chemistry rule? Never lick the spoon! Mole Joke What was Avogadros favorite sport? Golf - because he always got a mole-in-one. Gas Chromatography Joke What emotional disorder does a gas chromatograph suffer from? Separation anxiety. Interview Joke Question at interview: What is nitrate (nite rate or night rate), Answer: double time. Chemistry Poem Poor Willie worked in chem lab. Poor Willie is no more. For what he thought was H2O was H2SO4! Assault and Battery What happened to the man stopped for having sodium chloride and a 9-volt in his car? He was booked for a salt and battery. Joke Why Chemists Are Great Why are chemists so great at solving problems? Answer: Because they have all the solutions. Alphabet Chemistry Riddle What is HIJKLMNO? H2O Silver and Gold Silver walks up to gold in a bar and says, Au, get outta here! Noble Gas Helium walks into a bar. The bartender says, We dont serve noble gases here. Helium doesnt react. Starving Chemists How did the chemist survive the famine? He subsisted on titrations. Chemical Formula Joke Q: What is the chemical formula for diarrhea?A: (CO(NH2)2)2 Football Cheerleader Q: How did the football cheerleader define hydrophobic on her chemistry exam? A: Fear of utility bills. The Chemists Ferris Wheel What do chemists call a benzene ring where the carbon atoms are replaced with iron  atoms? A ferrous wheel. Burger Chemistry Why does hamburger yield lower energy than steak? Because its in the ground state. Titration Chemistry Riddle What did one titration say to the other? Lets meet at the endpoint. Solution Chemistry Joke Florence Flask was preparing to attend the opera. Suddenly she screamed, Erlenmeyer, my joules! Somebody has stolen my joules! Her husband replied, Relax dear. Well find a solution. Titanium Chemistry Joke Titanium is an amorous metal. When it gets hot, it will combine with anything! The Half-Empty Glass The optimist sees the glass as half full. The pessimist sees the glass as half empty. The chemist sees the glass as completely full, half in the liquid state and half in the gaseous state. Cash Chemistry It has been discovered that money consists of a yet-to-be- indentified superheavy element. The proposed element name  is Un-obtainium. Spectrometry Riddle What did the mass spectrometer say to the gas chromatograph? Breaking up is hard to do. One Bad Clown What would you call a clown in jail? Silicon Ice Water H2O is the formula for water, what is the formula for ice? H2O cubed Sea Water What is the chemical formula for sea water? CH2O Oxygen and Potassium Did you hear oxygen went on a date with potassium? It went OK. Water and Peroxide Joke what is H204? Its FOR drinking, bathing, and mixing with scotch. Another Bar Joke What did the bartender say when oxygen, hydrogen, sulfur, sodium, and phosphorus walking into the bar? OH SNaP! Carbon Chemistry Pun Why did the chemist coat his shoes with silicone rubber? He wanted to reduce his carbon footprint. Water Chemistry Question: What is the name of the molecule CH2O? Answer: Seawater Polarity Chemistry Humor Why did the white bear dissolve in water? Because it was a polar bear. Superhero Chemistry Pun If Iron Man and Silver Surfer teamed up, theyd be alloys. Sodium Humor Does anyone know any jokes about sodium? Na. Yeah, I know that was sodium funny! Chemistry One-Liner If youre not part of the solution, youre part of the precipitate! Bad Chemistry Jokes Id tell you a chemistry joke, but all the good ones argon. Chemistry Joke Pun I wish to apologize for not having more chemistry jokes, but I only add them periodically. If you want to use chemistry pick-up lines, look no further.

Marketing Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3250 words - 1

Marketing Planning - Essay Example 1.1 Product Introduction Mount Franklin is pure spring water without adding any flavour into the water, which is taken from beneath the ground, travelling through layers of the rock of three natural sources in Australia. In addition to competing with bottled water, Mount Franklin also competes with other non-alcoholic beverages. Despite the presence of competition and substitute products, the market remains attractive due to strong growth in demand, barrier to entry, lack of bargaining power of suppliers, favorable customers’ preference of bottled water over other types of beverages and CCA’s competitive advantage in distribution (Coca-Cola Amatil Ltd., 2003). The objectives of this marketing plan is to improve the market position of Mount Franklin by growing the demand for bottled water and improving Mount Franklin’s image over its competitors. However, there are issues which need to be addressed e.g. cannibalisation of other products produced by CCA and negativ e publicity from overseas. To achieve the stated objective, both offensive and defensive strategies will be discussed. Offensive strategies will be used to grow market share, customer purchase and market demand while defensive strategies will be used to protect current market position. 2. ... These beverages are bottled in plastic, glass or else canned in aluminium for sale to wholesalers and retailers. Mount Franklin spring water is available in many stores such as convenience stores, food court, take away outlets, supermarkets and vending machines. The major players involved in this industry are Coca-Cola Amatil Limited (CCA), Cadbury Schweppes Australia Limited, Berri Limited and Golden Circle Limited (CCA, 2004). In Australia, soft drink industry is a large industry with over $3 billion annual turnover and employs a substantial number of workers as shown in table 1. The major group of consumers who drink the bottled water are young people, singles, and couples especially female aged between 14 to 35 years (Australasian Bottled Water Institute, 2004 a ). In bottled water category, the CCA share has increased from 15% to 35% in the previous 18 months. Per capita consumption of its brands, ‘Mount Franklin’, the market leader, ‘pump’ and ‘N everfail’ has been growing (Australasian Bottled Water Institute, 2004 a ). 2.2 External: Market Analyses Porter’s Five Forces Analysis Rivalry among existing firms The industry could be considered as oligopoly. There are five major companies which account for more than 80% of the market share. Each of the major companies holds more than 1% of the market share and seeks to improve the share position. In addition, there are numerous companies which are local and international companies that compete in this industry. Thus, there is intense rivalry within the industry. Barrier to entry Although there is no regulation that prevents a company from entering soft drink industry, barrier to entry remains significant. Brand awareness is crucial

The types of risks and risk management measures which are needed in a Essay - 1

The types of risks and risk management measures which are needed in a financial institution - Essay Example The paper tells that risk is always going to be present in a financial institution and the higher the risk, the higher the return that the institution gets. Basically, risk and return are related in the same direction. A minor example of this would be a bank charging different interest rates on different individuals who have opted for the same loan. The individual who has a relatively poor credit history is likely to receive a higher interest rate as there are chances of him/her not paying the loan bank. Therefore, there is a higher risk and the bank gets a higher return through the higher interest rate charged. However, risk needs to be managed and there can be several huge losses if the financial institution is not ready to deal with it. Risk management is a type of strategy which every financial institution needs to have at its core and there are several parts involved in this including monitoring the risks, measuring these risks and controlling risks. It is the analysis of risk m ixed with the element of quality risk controls. Risk management is required by banks and financial institutions as a safety measure to protect the institution from any major financial problems. The uncertainty and the potential inherent risks that come with the financial markets makes it important for most of the financial institutions and banks to use risk management. The risk management controls are one of the major determinants of the financial stability of a bank. Systematic risk is also known as diversifiable risk. Basically, this particular type of risk means the risk of the change of asset value associated with systematic factors. Therefore, the risk cannot be fully diversified. There are several subcategories under systematic risks and there are various ways in which the value of an asset can be affected. The determinant of the change in the value of the assets owned by the institution and it depends upon natural and economic factors including interest rates affecting the va lue of the assets, an increase in inflation might cause an increase in fuel prices which might affect transportation and stock value and changes in economic conditions which may cause several changes in the value of

Live Concert Essay Example for Free

Live Concert Essay Throughout the history of time, music has changed, grown, and developed into many unique and different genres and broken off into many interesting directions. Among one of these rather recent and distinct groups comes the genre of psychedelic rock portrayed by groups like Dr. Dog and Wilco. Psychedelic rock is considered controversial simply because of its origin and the habits it produces, encourages, and signifies in present day culture. The genre of psychedelic rock uses ragas, which literally means â€Å"color† or â€Å"hue†, and the drones of Indian music to create its individual and mood enhancing sound. This genre is a style of rock that comes from the cultures of the United States as well as the United Kingdom in 1960’s in which the use of psychedelic or hallucinogenic drugs were popular. This music is meant to reflect the feeling and effects of the common drugs and to replicate the experience of a trip from certain drugs such as cannabis, peyote, mescaline, and LSD. This trend began in America first in San Francisco, California and slowly spread through the country. This genre of music still exists today and one form of that music is from the band Dr. Dog which originates from West Grove, Pennsylvania and consists of five members, Tony Leaman who plays the bass, Scott McMicken who is the lead guitar player, Frank McElroy who also plays the rhythm guitar, Zach Miller on the keyboard, and Eric Slide on the drums. Much of this music is relaxed and tranquil, not as much hype and energy as typical rock. To create something as unique as that of Psychedelic rock, or acid rock, there are certain instruments that are used to execute the sound. Commonly used instruments in these kinds of bands include the electric guitar, percussion, keyboards, and exotic instruments such as the tabla and the sitar. These exotic instruments add a new element that was never found in western culture before. These new types of foreign instruments create a new sound and sensation for the listener. Since the whole point of psychedelic rock is to reproduce the awareness of a high from certain drugs, it has many social issues that come along with it. Many of the songs of this genre allude to the use or effects of drugs and the music resembles that emotion. The dissonance of the tones within each song creates the feeling of a drug effect and adds to the large subculture of the twentieth century. Although the music did not necessarily encourage the use of drugs to listen to the music, it had a profound effect on people of that generation. The hippie subculture of the sixties and the seventies were some of the people that surrounded this type of music. That doesn’t mean that they had to do drugs, but it means they most likely did. These were the people who went against the societal norms and expectations of the era and were engaged in music like psychedelic rock. The lyrics to most of Dr. Dog’s songs are quite ambiguous. Each song has a meaning that’s personal to the individual who is hearing it. What the listener takes away is something of their own perception and thought process. Through my own interpretation of the lyrics, this part of a song called â€Å"The Breeze† refers directly to why this type of music is controversial.

The Challenge :: Education School Teaching Learning Essays

The Challenge The SCANS report challenged schools, parents, and businesses to help all students develop competencies in the basic skills, thinking skills, and personal qualities required for work in the current and future workplace. It identified five broad categories of competencies that would lead to successful transition from school to work (SCANS 1991): - Resources-Identifies, organizes, plans, and allocates resources - Interpersonal-Works with others on teams, teaches others, serves clients, exercises leadership, negotiates, and works with diversity - Information-Acquires, organizes, interprets, evaluates, and communicates information - Systems-Understands complex interrelationships and can distinguish trends, predict impacts, as well as monitor and correct performance - Technology-Works with a variety of technologies and can choose appropriate tool for task The SCANS report recommended that these competencies be learned in context in the environment in which they will be applied. Thus, the need for collaboration between schools and employers became apparent, as did the need for educational reform. Guided by these factors, vocational-technical programs have been redesigned and efforts such as tech prep have been initiated to respond to the SCANS challenge. State and Local Efforts Since 1991, many educational efforts have been initiated to incorporate the SCANS skills in the vocational-technical curricula of both secondary and postsecondary institutions. The Division of Vocational Education in the Idaho Department of Education, for example, developed a curriculum framework for the state's vocational-technical programs to address the training needs of employers and students. This framework, developed by industry and education personnel, encompassed the goals outlined in the SCANS report (Idaho Department of Education 1994). Tech prep programs in many states have been developed around the SCANS competencies. The Texas Education Agency and the University of Texas at Austin developed a model that incorporates tech prep components and SCANS competencies into their health science technology education program (McCarty et al. 1994). As part of their tech prep project, 91 Indiana secondary and postsecondary educators developed 50 application-based lessons during the 1993-1994 school year. Modeled around the SCANS competencies, these lessons are designed to bridge the gap students encounter when moving from school to work, focusing on long- and short-term project topics such as "creating a videotape" (Indiana Region 10 Tech Prep Consortium 1994). Most tech prep efforts incorporate recommendations presented in the SCANS report. For example, tech prep in Ohio is characterized by six benchmarks that focus on SCANS competencies (Ohio Department of Education 1993): - Tech prep programs will demonstrate systemic change at both the secondary and

Filipino Overseas Contract Workers in the US Essay

For the first study, it is expected that the researcher would determine the factors that motivate Filipinos to leave their own country and work abroad. This would include their financial situations in the Philippines together with family size, occupation of spouse, occupation or educational level of the children, and other demographics. Since it is quantitative, it is expected that the study will be able to generate statistics in order to determine the best reason for their migration. Participants would probably prefer to migrate because of more compensation and support for multicultural groups (Zalaquett, et.al, 2008). This also includes an opportunity to work with the protection of the law implemented in the United States. Qualitative data would suggest poor chances of development for them in their own country. It is also expected in the trend study results that US foreign policy will be implemented for the migration of Filipinos in the country. More Filipinos are expected to leave their country and eventually take their families after they have established their lives in the States. However, the study does not make use of any scale in concluding for its objectives. The study is also limited to Filipinos whereas other races such as Israelites and Palestinians are not included. Also, the focus is only on the reason why Filipinos prefer to leave the Philippines and work in other countries (American Psychological Association, 2002). Based on the expected outcomes of the study, it is recommended by the researcher that further studies be initiated on this specific topic. It is also recommended that a study be conducted on job satisfaction of Filipino overseas workers (OFWs) in the United States and compare them with those who prefer to stay in the Philippines. A comparative study on worker’s rights and social security policies between the Philippines and other OFW filled countries is also recommended to further supplement the results of the present study. References American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code Of Conduct (PDF). Zalaquett, C. , Foley, P. , Tillotson, K. , Dinsmore, J. , Hof, D. (2008). Multicultural and Social Justice Training for Counselor Education Programs and Colleges of Education: Rewards and Challenges. Journal of Counseling & Development, Volume 86, Number 3, 323 – 329.

Mao Study Guide

Mao’s Rise To Power I. Mao first got into radical issues in his home  province  of  Hunan, because there were large spheres of influences there II. In 1920, Mao stumbled upon Professor Chen Tu-hsiu,  China’s foremost Marxist. He gave Mao a position selling party literature in a bookshop III. Mao rose in status to provincial party leader soon afterward IV. In 1923, the Nationalist Party sought help and money from another source, so they joined the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP was being given money from the Soviets V. Soon after the Nationalist Party leader’s (Sun Yat-sen) death, Chiang Kai-shek took leadership of the Nationalists and separated themselves from the CCP because they didn’t want  China  to turn into a Soviet satellite state VI. Chiang began killing off the CCP. Mao and the CCP went on a Long March, or retreat using guerilla tactics, to Yan’an to flee from the Nationalists. They set up their base there because it was in the north, closer to the  Soviet Union, where they could get help VII. Chiang was very violent and killed many of his political opponents in the cities. This was more visible to the people than Mao’s violence in the countryside VIII. Most people knew that Chiang’s regime was corrupt, inefficient, and could not deal with inflation and famine IX. The Marco Polo Bridge Incident led to the full-scale invasion of the Japanese in 1937. This would last until the end of WWII in 1945. During this time: a. A truce was called between the Nationalists and CCP b. The Nationalists did the brunt of the fighting against the Japanese c. The Nationalists and CCP were given weapons from the  U. S. to fight the Japanese d. The Red Army was built up and members of the CCP were built up by the â€Å"mass line†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  i. Trained communists were sent in groups into the communities, where they said they had come to listen to the desires and ideas of the people   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ii. On their return, the party would then learn what measures would appeal and adapt to their own policies which would be presented to the people e. To brainwash newcomers, Mao did the Yenan Terror during WWII: i. Used a Chinese KGB   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  ii. Held denunciation rallies (you were forced to stand in front of peers and admit guilt (things that you did against the Communist ideology) even though you didn’t do them)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  iii. Singing, dancing, and humor were stopped   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  iv. All types of torture were u sed 1. Whipping 2. Hanging 3. Sleep deprivation v. No press   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  vi. Thought examination (you were forced to write down thoughts against the Communist ideology and accuse others of the same) f. After the Yenan Terror, Mao had gotten rid of enough opponents to claim himself supreme leader of the CCP X. After WWII, the Nationalists didn’t have enough manpower because  China  was so large in territory: a. Manchuria  (rich in mineral and coal deposits) was turned over from the Soviets to the CCP b. CCP took over many areas that the Japanese formerly held XI. The Marshall Mission led to a cease-fire between the Nationalists and CCP, so the Nationalists demilitarized over a million troops: a. Many troops did not have strong ties to the Nationalists (because they were former warlord troops) b. They were not helped to integrate into society, so they joined the CCP c. These troops located former Japanese weapons depots and showed the CCP how to work the weapons XII. The civil war started up again in 1946 and by October 1949, Mao proclaimed the People’s Republic of  China Rise/Consolidation of Power I. Eliminated political parties and churches II. Land was seized from landlords and many were executed III. Sanfan, Wufan, and Sufan campaigns were purges against ntelligentsia and CCP IV. Hundred Flowers Campaign was sneaky way to seek out political opponents by allowing them temporarily to speak out. The Anti-Rightist Campaign got rid of anyone who had spoken out against Mao V. Cultural Revolution called for students (called Red Guards) to safeguard Mao by getting rid of art, teachers, members of the CCP, or anything counter to the revolution VI. Laogoi were forced labo r camps VII. A compilation of Mao’s essays were put together in the â€Å"Little Red Book† and taught in all schools VIII. Rectification movements† served to eliminate intellectuals who Mao thought were dangerous by sending them to the countryside or killing them IX. Used speeches, propaganda posters, media, poets, film, etc. to prop up Mao’s â€Å"cult of personality† Previous Conditions I. China  was dominated by spheres of influence – places of foreign domination where the Chinese were looked upon as inferiors II. The country was not unified and had many provinces run by warlords, who were people not subservient to the government III. Previous governments were unstable and corrupt – the Manchu Dynasty had recently fallen – 1911, Yuan Shikai (a military general) ran the country for the next four years – 1912-1916, the warlord era was a period of chaos and great disunity – 1916-1925 IV. There were many economic problems: a. Widespread poverty b. Heavy taxes c. Large disparity between rich and poor d. Backward industry e. Few owned land V. Chiang was totalitarian and used violence to suppress political opponents; his government was also corrupt and took money from the peasants Successes I. Built up a following through charm and manipulation, allowing him to rise up in the CCP II. Escaped the Nationalist army and set up base in the north during the Long March III. Built up the CCP army and following during WWII through the â€Å"mass line† IV. Used the Yenan Terror to instill the ideology, brainwash and instill fear in his followers. All were loyal to Mao after the terror V. Yenan Terror was also used to brainwash people into thinking that Chiang was the enemy so that Mao would garner more support VI. Used the end of WWII to grab former Japanese occupied territory in  China VII. Acquired and successfully used demilitarized, former Nationalist troops in the Civil War after the Marshall Mission VIII. Won the Chinese Civil War because of the weakened Nationalist army and became dictator of the People’s Republic of  China IX. Ousted all political parties so that his CCP was the only one X. Churches were closed; Christianity, Buddhism, and Confucianism were denounced – this allowed less potential sources of opposition XI. Marriage Law gave more rights to women, such as the right to own property, no more foot binding, and consensual marriage XII. Health reforms were made to take the nation off it’s opium addiction, such as harsher penalties, rehabilitation, and education campaigns XIII. Under the Agrarian Reform Law, peasants were given land from rich landlords XIV. Ousted foreigners, so he got rid of all possible spheres of influence and any semblance of outside control XV. Hundred Flowers Campaign revealed those who opposed the regime, enabling Mao to get rid of them later on through the Anti-Rightist Campaign XVI. Mao regained power (after his Great Leap Forward failure) through the Cultural Revolution, a purge of teachers, art, and party officials XVII. Used the Little Red Book, speeches, posters, badges, etc. to successfully build up his â€Å"cult of personality†. His face was everywhere Failures I. Didn’t have the amphibious forces to pursue the Nationalists in  Taiwan II. First Five Year Plan built up industry, but failed to reach the target goals and lagged behind the industry of large industrial countries III. Mao also wanted to raise output in factories, so common sense and rules went to the wayside in the name of speed. Accidents frequently caused tens of thousands of deaths IV. Anything that peasants could melt down into steel was put in backyard furnaces. Much of the steel was unusable for industry V. Forests were stripped of trees to be used as fuel, so deforestation was widespread VI. Mao ordered huge drives to build irrigation systems using poor equipment. Some of these projects are still unstable today VII. In the Great Leap Forward, collectivization failed, as food was forcefully taken from the peasants because Mao wanted to export the food for industry/weapons (he wanted to be a superpower). 38 million died of famine and disease. Agriculture continued to lag. Mao temporarily fell from power VIII. Sanfan, Wufan, Sufan, Anti-Rightist, and Cultural Revolution terror campaigns were against intellectuals (as well as others), but this got rid of most of the educated people in the country who could’ve helped the economy grow IX. One of the Cultural Revolution’s objectives was to wipe out anything cultural, so a generation of culture was wiped out X. The people responsible for carrying out the Cultural Revolution were students, so schools were closed during this time. Education was stopped completely during this period

Nicolau Copernicus - Founder of Modern Astronomy

Nicolau Copernicus - Founder of Modern Astronomy This profile of Nicolau Copernicus is part ofWhos Who in Medieval History   Nicolau Copernicus was also known as: The Father of Modern Astronomy. His name is sometimes spelled Nicolaus, Nicolas, Nicholas, Nikalaus or Nikolas; in Polish, Mikolaj Kopernik, Niclas Kopernik or Nicolaus Koppernigk. Nicolau Copernicus was known for: Recognizing and promoting the idea that the Earth revolved around the sun. Although he was not the first scientist to propose it, his bold return to the theory (first proposed by Aristarchus of Samos in the 3rd-century B.C.) had significant and far-reaching effects in the evolution of scientific thought. Occupations: AstronomerWriter Places of Residence and Influence: Europe: PolandItaly Important Dates: Born: Feb. 19, 1473Died: May 24, 1543 About Nicolau Copernicus: Copernicus studied liberal arts, which included both astronomy and astrology as part of the science of the stars, at the University of Krakà ³w, but left before completing his degree. He resumed his studies at the University of Bologna, where he lived in the same house as Domenico Maria de Novara, the principal astronomer there. Copernicus assisted de Novara in some of his observations and in the production of the annual astrological forecasts for the city. It is at Bologna that he probably first encountered the works of Regiomontanus, whose translation of Ptolemys Almagest would make it possible for Copernicus to successfully refute the ancient astronomer. Later, at the University of Padua, Copernicus studied medicine, which was closely associated with astrology at that time due to the belief that the stars influenced the dispositions of the body. He finally received a doctorate in canon law from the University of Ferrara, an institution hed never attended. Returning to Poland, Copernicus secured a scholastry (an in abstentia teaching post) at Wroclaw, where he primarily worked as a medical doctor and manager of Church affairs. In his spare time, he studied the stars and the planets (decades before the telescope was invented), and applied his mathematical understanding to the mysteries of the night sky. In so doing, he developed his theory of a system in which the Earth, like all the planets, revolved around the sun, and which simply and elegantly explained the curious retrograde movements of the planets. Copernicus wrote his theory in De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Orbs). The book was completed in 1530 or so, but it wasnt published until the year he died. Legend has it that a copy of the printers proof was placed in his hands as he lay in a coma, and he woke long enough to recognize what he was holding before he died. More Copernicus Resources: Portrait of Nicolau CopernicusNicolau Copernicus in Print The Life of Nicolaus Copernicus: Disputing the ObviousBiography of Copernicus from Nick Greene, former About.com Guide to Space/Astronomy. Nicolau Copernicus on the Web Nicolaus CopernicusAdmiring, substantial biography from a Catholic perspective, by J. G. Hagen at the Catholic Encyclopedia.Nicolaus Copernicus: 1473 - 1543This bio at the MacTutor site includes very straightforward explanations of some of Copernicuss theories, as well as photos of some places significant to his life.Nicolaus CopernicusExtensive, well-supported examination of the astronomers life and works by Sheila Rabin at The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Medieval Mathematics and AstronomyMedieval Poland The text of this document is copyright  ©2003-2016 Melissa Snell. You may download or print this document for personal or school use, as long as the URL below is included. Permission is   not  granted to reproduce this document on another website. For publication permission,  please   contact  Melissa Snell. The URL for this document is:http://historymedren.about.com/od/cwho/p/copernicus.htm Chronological Index Geographical Index Index by Profession, Achievement, or Role in Society

Biography of Victoriano Huerta, President of Mexico

Biography of Victoriano Huerta, President of Mexico Victoriano Huerta (December 22, 1850–January 13, 1916) was a Mexican general who served as president and dictator of Mexico from February 1913 to July 1914. An important figure in the Mexican Revolution, he fought against Emiliano Zapata, Pancho Villa, Fà ©lix Dà ­az and other rebels before and during his time in office. Fast Facts: Victoriano Huerta Known For: President and dictator of Mexico, February 1913–July 1914Born: December 22, 1850 in barrio of Agua Gorda within the municipality of Colotln, JaliscoParents: Jesà ºs Huerta Cà ³rdoba and Marà ­a Lzara del Refugio MrquezDied: January 13, 1916 in El Paso, TexasEducation: Military College of ChapultepecSpouse: Emilia guila Moya (m. November 21, 1880)Children: Nine A brutal, ruthless fighter, during his reign the alcoholic Huerta was widely feared and despised by his foes and supporters alike. Eventually driven from Mexico by a loose coalition of revolutionaries, he spent a year and a half in exile before dying of cirrhosis in a Texas prison. Early Life Victoriano Huerta was born Josà © Victoriano Huerta Mrquez on December 22, 1850, the only son and eldest of five children of peasant farmer Jesà ºs Huerta Cà ³rdoba and and his wife Marà ­a Lzara del Refugio Mrquez. They lived in the barrio of Agua Gorda within the municipality of Colotln, Jalisco. His parents were of Huichol (Wixritari) ethnicity, and although Jesà ºs Huerta was said to be partly of European descent (mestizo), Victoriano considered himself indigenous. Victoriano Huerta was taught to read and write by the village priest, and he was said to have been a good student. By the time he was a teenager, Huerta earned money as a bookkeeper in Colotln. He wanted to join the military, and sought admission to the Military College of Chapultepec. In 1871, General Donato Guerra, leader of the Mexican army at the time, led a garrison of troops into Colotln. Needing secretarial help, Guerra was introduced to Huerta who impressed him greatly. When Guerra left the city, he took Huerta with him, and at the age of 17, Huerta entered the military academy in January of 1872. There he took classes to become an artillery officer, specializing in mathematics, mountain gunnery, topography, and astronomy. He was an outstanding student, and made second lieutenant by December 1875. Early Military Career Huerra first saw military action while at the academy, when he participated in the Battle of Tecoac fought on November 16, 1876 between then-president Sebastin Lerdo de Tejada and Porfirio Diaz. As a member of the army, he fought for the president and was thus on the losing side, but the battle brought Porforio Diaz to power, the man who would he would serve for the next 35 years. When he graduated from the academy in 1877, Huerta was one of three men chosen to continuing his education in Germany, but his father died and he elected to stay in Mexico. He joined the engineering branch of the army and was given assignments for repairing military institutions in Veracruz and Puebla. By 1879 he was promoted to Captain, and acted as engineer and quartermaster. At the end of 1880, he was promoted to Major. While in Veracruz, Huerta had met Emilia guila Moya, and they married on November 21, 1880: they would eventually have nine children. In January 1881,Porfirio Dà ­az assigned Huerta special duty on the Geographic Survey Commission, headquartered in Jalapa, Veracruz. Huerta spent the next decade working with that commission, traveling all over the country on engineering assignments. In particular he was assigned to astronomical work, and one of the projects under his direct supervision was the observation of the Transit of Venus in December 1882. Huerta also supervised surveying work for the Mexican National Railway. A Military Force Huertas technological and intellectual uses in the army took on a more aggressive stance in the mid-1890s. In 1895, he was sent to Guerrero, where the military had risen against the governor. Diaz sent troops in, and among them was Victoriano Huerta, who there gained a reputation as an able field officer: but also as a man who gave no quarter, who continued to slaughter rebels after they had surrendered. Proving to be an effective leader of men and a ruthless fighter, he became a favorite of Porfirio Dà ­az. By the turn of the century, he rose to the rank of general. Dà ­az tasked him with the suppression of Indian uprisings, including a bloody campaign against the Maya in the Yucatan in which Huerta razed villages and destroyed crops. In 1901, he also fought the Yaquis in Sonora. Huerta was a heavy drinker who preferred brandy: according to Pancho Villa, Huerta would start drinking when he woke up and go all day. The Revolution Begins General Huerta was one of Dà ­az most trusted military leaders when hostilities broke out after the 1910 election. The opposition candidate, Francisco I. Madero, had been arrested and later fled into exile, proclaiming revolution from safety in the United States. Rebel leaders such as Pascual Orozco, Emiliano Zapata, and Pancho Villa heeded the call, capturing towns, destroying trains and attacking federal forces whenever and wherever they found them. Huerta was sent to reinforce the city of Cuernavaca, under attack by Zapata, but the old regime was under assault from all sides, and Dà ­az accepted Maderos offer to go into exile in May of 1911. Huerta escorted the old dictator to Veracruz, where a steamer was waiting to take Dà ­az into exile in Europe. Huerta and Madero Although Huerta was bitterly disappointed by the fall of Dà ­az, he signed up to serve under Madero. For a while in 1911–1912 things were relatively quiet as those around him took the measure of the new president. Things soon deteriorated, however, as Zapata and Orozco figured out that Madero was unlikely to keep certain promises he had made. Huerta was first sent south to deal with Zapata and then north to fight Orozco. Forced to work together against Orozco, Huerta and Pancho Villa found that they despised one another. To Villa, Huerta was a drunk and martinet with delusions of grandeur, and to Huerta, Villa was an illiterate, violent peasant who had no business leading an army. The Decena Trgica In late 1912 another player entered the scene: Fà ©lix Dà ­az, nephew of the deposed dictator, declared himself in Veracruz. He was quickly defeated and captured, but in secret, he entered into a conspiracy with Huerta and American ambassador Henry Lane Wilson to get rid of Madero. In February 1913 fighting broke out in Mexico City and Dà ­az was released from prison. This kicked off the Decena Trgica, or â€Å"tragic fortnight,† which saw horrible fighting in the streets of Mexico City as forces loyal to Dà ­az fought the federals. Madero holed up inside the national palace and foolishly accepted Huertas â€Å"protection† even when presented with evidence that Huerta would betray him. Huerta Rises to Power Huerta, who had been fighting with Madero, abruptly changed sides and arrested Madero on February 17. He made Madero and his vice president resign: the Mexican Constitution listed the Secretary of Foreign Relations as the next in succession. That man, Pedro Lasurain, took the reins, named Huerta as Minister of the Interior and then resigned, making Huerta Secretary of Foreign Relations. Madero and Vice-President Pino Suarez were killed on February 21, supposedly while â€Å"attempting to escape.† No one believed it: Huerta had obviously given the order and hadnt even gone to much trouble with his excuse. Once in power, Huerta disowned his fellow conspirators and attempted to make himself dictator in the mold of his old mentor, Porfirio Dà ­az. Carranza, Villa, Obregà ³n and Zapata Although Pascual Orozco quickly signed on, adding his forces to the federalists, the other revolutionary leaders were united in their hatred of Huerta. Two more revolutionaries appeared: Venustiano Carranza, governor of the State of Coahuila, and Alvaro Obregà ³n, an engineer who would become one of the revolutions best field generals. Carranza, Obregà ³n, Villa and Zapata could not agree on much, but they all despised Huerta. All of them opened fronts on the federalists: Zapata in Morelos, Carranza in Coahuila, Obregà ³n in Sonora and Villa in Chihuahua. Although they did not work together in the sense of coordinated attacks, they were still loosely united in their heartfelt desire that anyone but Huerta should rule Mexico. Even the United States got in on the action: sensing that Huerta was unstable, President Woodrow Wilson sent forces to occupy the important port of Veracruz. The Battle of Zacatecas In June 1914, Pancho Villa moved his massive force of 20,000 soldiers to attack the strategic city of Zacatecas. The Federals dug in on two hills overlooking the city. In a day of intense fighting, Villa captured both hills and the federal forces were forced to flee. What they didnt know was that Villa had stationed part of his army along the escape route. The fleeing federals were massacred. When the smoke had cleared, Pancho Villa had scored the most impressive military victory of his career and 6,000 federal soldiers were dead. Exile and Death Huerta knew his days were numbered after the crushing defeat at Zacatecas. When word of the battle spread, federal troops defected in droves to the rebels. On July 15, Huerta resigned and left for exile, leaving Francisco Carbajal in charge until Carranza and Villa could decide how to proceed with the government of Mexico. Huerta moved around while in exile, living in Spain, England, and the United States. He never gave up hope for a return to rule in Mexico, and when Carranza, Villa, Obregà ³n and Zapata turned their attention to one another, he thought he saw his chance. Reunited with Orozco in New Mexico in mid-1915, he began to plan his triumphant return to power. They were caught by US federal agents, however, and never even crossed the border. Orozco escaped only to be hunted down and shot by Texas rangers. Huerta was imprisoned for inciting rebellion. He died in prison at El Paso, Texas, on January 13, 1916, of cirrhosis, although there were rumors that the Americans had poisoned him.​ Legacy of Victoriano Huerta There is little to be said that is positive about Huerta. Even before the revolution, he was a widely despised figure for his ruthless repression of native populations all over Mexico. He consistently took the wrong side, defending the corrupt Porfirio Dà ­az regime before conspiring to bring down Madero, one of the few true visionaries of the revolution. He was an able commander, as his military victories prove, but his men did not like him and his enemies absolutely despised him. He did manage one thing that no one else ever did: he made Zapata, Villa, Obregà ³n and Carranza work together. These rebel commanders only ever agreed on one thing: Huerta should not be president. Once he was gone, they began fighting one another, leading to the worst years of the brutal revolution. Even today, Huerta is hated by Mexicans. The bloodshed of the revolution has been largely forgotten and the different commanders have taken on legendary status, much of it undeserved: Zapata is the ideological purist, Villa is the Robin Hood bandit, Carranza a quixotic chance for peace. Huerta, however, is still considered (accurately) to be a violent, drunk sociopath who needlessly lengthened the period of the revolution for his own ambition and is responsible for the death of thousands. Sources Coerver, Don M. Huerto, Victoriano (1845–1916). Mexico: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Culture and History. Eds. Coerver, Don M., Suzanne B. Pasztor and Robert Buffington. Santa Barbara, California: ABC Clio, 2004. 220–22. Print.Henderson, Peter V.N. Woodrow Wilson, Victoriano Huerta, and the Recognition Issue in Mexico. The Americas 41.2 (1984): 151–76. Print.Marley, David F. Huerta Marquez, Jose Victoriano (1850–1916). Mexico at War: From the Struggle for Independence to the 21st-Century Drug Wars. Santa Barbara: ABC-Clio, 2014. 174–176.McLynn, Frank. Villa and Zapata: A History of the Mexican Revolution. New York: Basic Books, 2002.  Meyer, Michael C. Huerta: A Political Portrait. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1972.Rausch, George J. The Early Career of Victoriano Huerta. The Americas 21.2 (1964): 136-45. Print..Richmond, Douglas W. Victoriano Huerta in Encyclopedia of Mexico. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1997. 655–658.

Candide as Atypical Enlightenment Cultural Production Essay

Candide as Atypical Enlightenment Cultural Production - Essay Example But if there was a single thing that defined the Enlightenment, it was the primacy of reason. This primacy led to all of the other changes in western thought and practice. Voltaire was in many ways the prototypical man of the enlightenment – a cross between a renaissance man and a modern scientist, Voltaire valued reason most highly in all of his philosophical works. The picaresque novel Candide, however, is in many ways atypical of Voltaire’s reputation. Probably the single most significant way it was atypical of the Enlightenment was its willingness to go to polemical extremes – often overstepping its logical argument for rhetorical purposes. One of the fundamental ways the Enlightenment separated itself from the era before it was a paucity of emphasis being placed on rhetorical technique. Rhetorical technique fundamentally relies on the manipulation of emotion, while Enlightenment thinkers would have preferred to win over their opponents through pure reason an d logical argument. Candide, however, takes an entirely different tact. One of its basic purposes was to mock the idea of optimism, an idea associated with the thinker Leibniz, and essentially argued that absolute, irrevocable evil did not exist. In some ways Voltaire counters this argument logically in Candide, by, for instance, demonstrating a great number of tragedies that seem to counter the most fundamental idea of optimism, such as ship wrecks, earth quakes, war, thievery and so on (Voltaire). This acts as a logical counter to the ideas that Voltaire is trying to counter. Yet, in an entirely un-Enlightened fashion, Voltaire also resorts to illogical tactics in order to drive his point home further. Rather than simply put the counterpoints logically and leave it at that, Voltaire finds it necessary to mock the very idea of optimism as ridiculous, in order to discredit Leibniz and his followers. Voltaire does this through the creation of the character Pangloss, who calls himself a follower of Leibniz, and indicates that he teaches what the master Leibniz argued (Voltaire 473). Voltaire makes this character the opposite of reasonable, and entirely comical in his idiocy. At one point, for instance, he completely inverts the ideas of cause and effect – saying that â€Å"the nose is formed for spectacles, therefore we wear spectacles† (475). This is obviously the reversal of cause and effect – spectacles are designed for a nose because we have a nose for them to sit on. But by mocking the lack of logic in his opponents, Voltaire actually demonstrates a lack of logic on his own part – this is an ad hominem argument, which is one of the most basic forms of logical fallacy. This thus goes against the fundamental ideas of the Enlightenment, and uses illogical arguments to try to convince the reader of something – in this case, the idiocy of optimism. If there is a single thing that defines the Enlightenment it is an intense attac hment to reason and rationality. If an argument cannot stand logically, it should not stand at all under Enlightenment thinking. Voltaire, however, moves away from this in his novel Candide. He seems so eager to make his points, to mock his adversaries, that he results to illogical arguments, placing rhetoric of a previous age above the rationality that was so central to the Enlightenment. Works Cited Voltaire. â€Å"Candide† in Norton Anthology of Western Literature Sarah N Lawall, Ed.